The Impact of Biomaterial Characteristics on Macrophage Phenotypes in Tissue Engineering: A Review

This review highlights the role of macrophages in tissue engineering, focusing on how biomaterial characteristics can influence macrophage polarization from pro-inflammatory M1 to anti-inflammatory M2 phenotypes. It discusses how properties like surface chemistry, structure, and stiffness of biomaterials can modulate macrophage behavior to reduce foreign body responses and enhance tissue regeneration. Innovations such as tailored scaffold architectures, bioactive coatings, and cytokine delivery systems are promising for improving outcomes in bone, soft tissue, and head and neck reconstruction. The review also emphasizes the potential of hydrogels and nanostructured materials to control macrophage activity, mimicking native extracellular matrix dynamics and promoting healing. It identifies gaps in understanding macrophage-stromal interactions and the need for personalized biomaterial designs, suggesting that advanced technologies like artificial intelligence could optimize scaffold design to meet clinical needs in regenerative medicine.