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GlossaryPeptidylarginine Deiminase

enzyme converting arginine in proteins to citrulline

Peptidylarginine Deiminase (PAD) is an enzyme that converts arginine residues in proteins into citrulline through a process called deimination or citrullination. This modification can affect protein function and is involved in various physiological processes, including the regulation of gene expression and the formation of hair. Dysregulation of PAD activity has been linked to autoimmune diseases and conditions like alopecia.

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research Human Peptidylarginine Deiminase Type III: Molecular Cloning and Nucleotide Sequence of the cDNA, Properties of the Recombinant Enzyme, and Immunohistochemical Localization in Human Skin

124 citations , November 2000 in “The journal of investigative dermatology/Journal of investigative dermatology”

PAD3 plays a key role in hair and skin protein structure and may be linked to skin diseases.

research Peptidylarginine Deiminase Isoforms Are Differentially Expressed in the Anagen Hair Follicles and Other Human Skin Appendages

71 citations , June 2005 in “Journal of Investigative Dermatology”

PAD enzymes play a key role in hair growth and structure.

research Isolation and Molecular Cloning of Epidermal- and Hair Follicle-Specific Peptidylarginine Deiminase (Type III) from Rat

42 citations , May 1997 in “The Journal of Biochemistry”

PAD type III enzyme is specific to rat skin and hair follicles.

Ca2+ Mediated Protein Citrullination Regulates Proliferation in the Regenerating and Malignant CNS

research Ca ²⁺ -mediated protein citrullination regulates proliferation in the regenerating and malignant CNS

January 2026

Ca²⁺-mediated protein citrullination controls cell growth in the CNS and may help treat brain tumors.

research Specific Citrullination Causes Assembly of a Globular S100A3 Homotetramer

62 citations , December 2007 in “Journal of biological chemistry/The Journal of biological chemistry”

A specific chemical change in the S100A3 protein leads to the formation of a four-part structure important for hair formation.

research The Fate of Trichohyalin

135 citations , October 1997 in “Journal of biological chemistry/The Journal of biological chemistry”

Trichohyalin is modified by enzymes to form strong structures in hair cells.

A Hairy Situation: PADIs in Regeneration and Alopecia

research A Hairy Cituation – PADIs in Regeneration and Alopecia

5 citations , December 2021 in “Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology”

Enzymes called PADIs play a key role in hair growth and loss.

research Deimination in epidermal barrier and hair formation

2 citations , October 2023 in “Philosophical transactions - Royal Society. Biological sciences”

Enzymes that change arginine to citrulline are important for skin barrier and hair formation, and their malfunction can lead to skin conditions and hair disorders.

research George Ernest Rogers 1927–2021

June 2023 in “Historical records of Australian science/Historical Records of Australian Science”

George Ernest Rogers was a notable scientist who made important discoveries about hair and wool proteins.

Immunocytochemical Localization of Peptidylarginine Deiminase Type III, Trichohyalin, and Deiminated Trichohyalin in Infant Rat Dorsal Skin Hair Follicle

research Immunocytochemical Localization of Peptidylarginine Deiminase Type III, Trichohyalin and Deiminated Trichohyalin in Infant Rat Dorsal Skin Hair Follicle

2 citations , January 2001 in “Biomedical Research”

Trichohyalin and peptidylarginine deiminase type III are found together in rat hair follicles, with trichohyalin being modified after expression.

Morphogenesis and Hair Cycle-Dependent Expression of Trichohyalin, Peptidylarginine Deiminase Type III, and Deiminated Trichohyalin in Rat Dorsal Skin Hair Follicles

research Morphogenesis- and Hair Cycle-dependent Expression of Trichohyalin, Peptidylarginine Deiminase Type III and Deiminated Trichohyalin in Rat Dorsal Skin Hair Follicles

January 2001 in “Biomedical Research”

THH and PAD type III appear together early in hair growth, but deiminated THH appears later, suggesting another factor is involved.

research Deimination and Peptidylarginine Deiminases in Skin Physiology and Diseases

57 citations , January 2020 in “International Journal of Molecular Sciences”

PADs are crucial for healthy skin and hair, and their imbalance can cause skin and hair disorders.

research Pathogenic variants affecting peptidyl arginine deiminase 3 and its major substrates underlie central centrifugal cicatricial alopecia

November 2025 in “Journal of Investigative Dermatology”

Genetic variants in specific genes cause central centrifugal cicatricial alopecia.

research Citrullinome of Porphyromonas gingivalis Outer Membrane Vesicles: Confident Identification of Citrullinated Peptides

21 citations , November 2019 in “Molecular & Cellular Proteomics”

Citrullinated proteins from Porphyromonas gingivalis may contribute to rheumatoid arthritis.

research Transglutaminase-3 Enzyme: A Putative Actor in Human Hair Shaft Scaffolding?

30 citations , August 2008 in “The journal of investigative dermatology/Journal of investigative dermatology”

TGase 3 helps build hair structure by forming strong bonds between proteins.

research Hair Loss Caused by Gain-of-Function Mutant TRPV3 Is Associated with Premature Differentiation of Follicular Keratinocytes

11 citations , March 2021 in “The journal of investigative dermatology/Journal of investigative dermatology”

A gene mutation causes early keratinocyte maturation leading to hair loss in Olmsted syndrome.

research Erasing the methyl mark: histone demethylases at the center of cellular differentiation and disease

667 citations , May 2008 in “Genes & Development”

Histone demethylases can change gene expression and may be linked to diseases like cancer.

Comprehensive Overview of Rheumatology Studies: Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, February 13–16, 2013

research Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, February 13–16, 2013

4 citations , June 2013 in “The Journal of Rheumatology”

The document concludes that various findings in rheumatology offer insights into disease severity, treatment responses, and potential risks in medication, with some limitations due to unspecified participant numbers.

research 461: THE PROFIBROGENIC ROLE OF NEUTROPHIL EXTRACELLULAR TRAPS IN STENOTIC CROHN'S DISEASE: A NEW ANTIFIBROTIC TARGET?

May 2022 in “Gastroenterology”

Targeting NETs may help reduce fibrosis in Crohn's disease.

research Deciphering the pathogenesis of central centrifugal cicatricial alopecia

September 2019

Mutations in the PADI3 gene may cause central centrifugal cicatricial alopecia in women of African ancestry.

research Citrullination at the Inflammatory Skin Barrier

May 2023 in “The journal of investigative dermatology/Journal of investigative dermatology”

A potential treatment for atopic dermatitis could be to increase PADI1 expression to improve skin barrier function.

research Central Centrifugal Cicatricial Alopecia

3 citations , April 2022 in “Cutis”

CCCA is a common, scarring hair loss in Black women that needs early detection.

research Central centrifugal cicatricial alopecia

1 citations , April 2022 in “The Journal of Family Practice”

CCCA causes progressive hair loss in Black women, starting from a central scalp patch.

research Arachidonate 12-Lipoxygenase Inhibitors Promote S100A3 Citrullination in Cultured SW480 Cells and Isolated Hair Follicles

4 citations , January 2017 in “Biological & pharmaceutical bulletin”

Inhibiting ALOX12 can help hair cuticle maturation by increasing S100A3 citrullination.

Identifying Key Components and Therapeutic Targets of the Immune System in Hidradenitis Suppurativa with an Emphasis on Neutrophils

research Identifying key components and therapeutic targets of the immune system in hidradenitis suppurativa with an emphasis on neutrophils

16 citations , September 2020 in “British journal of dermatology/British journal of dermatology, Supplement”

The article suggests that targeting specific immune pathways could help control and treat the skin disease hidradenitis suppurativa.

research Discussion: Themes in the Molecular Structure of Hair

December 1991 in “Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences”

Keratin proteins are crucial for hair structure and strength.

research Trichohyalin: Presence in the Granular Layer and Stratum Corneum of Normal Human Epidermis

48 citations , May 1991 in “The journal of investigative dermatology/Journal of investigative dermatology”

Trichohyalin is also found in the outer layers of normal human skin.

Autoantigen Discovery in the Hair Loss Disorder, Alopecia Areata: Implications of Post-Translational Modifications

research Autoantigen Discovery in the Hair Loss Disorder, Alopecia Areata: Implication of Post-Translational Modifications

11 citations , June 2022 in “Frontiers in immunology”

New protein changes may be involved in the immune attack on hair follicles in alopecia areata.

research Variant PADI3 in Central Centrifugal Cicatricial Alopecia

95 citations , February 2019 in “The New England Journal of Medicine”

Mutations in the PADI3 gene are linked to a higher risk of scarring hair loss in women of African descent.

research A Mixture of Tocopherol Acetate and L-Menthol Synergistically Promotes Hair Growth in C57BL/6 Mice

7 citations , December 2020 in “Pharmaceutics”

A mix of tocopherol acetate and L-menthol helps grow hair better than using them separately or using minoxidil.